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开始学习
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The ability to create an infinite number of new sentences that are also grammatically correct
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Give an example of a phrase structure rule 开始学习
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The deep structure and surface structure 开始学习
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The deep structure is an abstract level of structural organization in which all the elements determining structural interpretation are represented. • That same deep structure can be the source of many other surface structures
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开始学习
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specify which words can be used when we rewrite constituents
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开始学习
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Transform sentences, e.g., from statements to questions
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example of a transformational rule 开始学习
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Statement: "She is happy." → Question: "Is she happy?
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开始学习
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is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences (Semantics is concerned with objective or general meaning)
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开始学习
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Conceptual and associative meaning
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(denotative, literal, dictinary) 开始学习
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covers basic, essential components of meaning that are conveyed by the literal use of a word needle - ‘thin, sharp, steel instrument’ (basic components of the word)
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开始学习
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all types of associations or connotations different people might have attached to a word
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开始学习
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– crucial elements or features of meaning Example: to be a subject of a sentence a noun must be animate Boy (+animate) Hamburger (-animate)
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开始学习
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The roles of sentence participants, e.g., agent, theme The boy kicked the ball. • The agent - ‘the entity that performs the action’ (the boy) • The theme (the patient) – ‘the entity that is involved in or affected by the action’ (the ball)
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开始学习
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1 agent, 2 theme, 3 instument, 4 experiencer, 5 localisation, 6 source, 7 goal
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开始学习
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‘the entity that performs the action
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开始学习
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‘the entity that is involved in or affected by the action’
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an entity used to perform an action
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an entity (a person) who has a feeling, perception or state; s/he is not performing any action
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the location, source, goal 开始学习
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The location - where an entity is (on the table, in the room) • The source – where the entity moves from (from Chcago) • The goal - where the entity moves to (to New Orlean)
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开始学习
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The relationships between words
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7 types of lexical relations 开始学习
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Synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, homonymy, polysemy, metonymy, collocations.
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开始学习
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Two or more words with very closely related meanings; they can be substituted for each other in sentences
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开始学习
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Words that sound the same but have different meanings, e.g., "bare" and "bear"
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开始学习
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The idea of ‘the characteristic instance’ of a category The best examples of a category, e.g., "sparrow" as a prototype of a bird.
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Antonyms are divided into two main types: • ‘gradable’ (opposites along a scale) • ‘non-gradable’ (direct opposites) 开始学习
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Two forms with opposite meanings alive/dead, big/small, fast/slow, happy/sad, hot/cold, long/short, male/female, married/single, old/new, rich/poor, true/false
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开始学习
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When the meaning of one form is included in the meaning of another, the relationship is described animal/dog, dog/poodle, vegetable/carrot, flower/rose, tree/banyan
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开始学习
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when one form (written or spoken) has two or more unrelated meanings bank (of a river) – bank (financial institution) bat (flying creature) – bat (used in sports) mole (on skin) – mole (small animal) pupil (at school) – pupil (in the eye) race (contest of speed) – race (ethnic group)
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开始学习
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When two or more different (written) forms have the same pronunciation bare/bear, meat/meet, flour/flower, pail/pale, right/write, sew/so and to/too/two.
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开始学习
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Two or more words with the same form and related meanings Head - the object on top of the body, on top of a glass of beer, person at the top of a company or department. • Foot (of person, of bed, of mountain) or • Run (person does, water does, colors do)
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close connection in everyday experience a container–contents relation (bottle/water, can/juice), • a whole–part relation (car/wheels, house/roof) • a representative–symbol relationship (king/crown, the President/the White House
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a predictable combination of words‘; words frequently occurring together Hammer – nail • Table – chair • Butter – bread • Needle – thread • Salt – pepper
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开始学习
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complementary, gradable, and relational gradable - opposite along on a scale (big-small, old-new, early-late) non-gradable - direct opposite (black-white, dead-alive, true-false) reelational - frtom the same family (parent-child, teacher-student, give-recive)
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special properties of human language (natural language) 开始学习
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Duality, productivity, cultural transmission, arbitrariness Displacement • Arbitrariness • Productivity • Cultural transmission • Duality
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What are the areas in the brain responsible for speech 开始学习
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Broca’s area (speech production) and Wernicke’s area (understanding the speech)
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开始学习
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is a bundle of nerve fibers which forms a connection between Wernicke’s and Broca’s areas. • Discoverd by Wernicke
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开始学习
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an area in the brain that controls movement of the muscles. The part of the motor cortex that controls the articulatory muscles of the face, jaw, tongue and larynx is located close to Broca’s area
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3 difficulties in speech production 开始学习
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• The tip of the tongue phenomenon • A slip of the tongue • A slip of the ear
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The tip of the tongue phenomenon 开始学习
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We feel that we know the word but it doesn’t want to come to the surface
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开始学习
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An unintentional error in speaking, where someone says something different from what they intended. It often involves mixing up sounds, words, or sentence structures noble tons of soil --- noble sons of toil A speech error where a person unintentionally says a different word or phrase than intended.
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A mishearing of spoken words
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Broca’s aphasia • Wernicke’s aphasia • Conduction aphasia 开始学习
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an impairment of language function caused by localized brain damage; it results in difficulties understanding and/or producing linguistic forms
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开始学习
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a reduced amount of speech, distorted articulation, slow, often effortful speech , lexical morphemes (e.g. nouns, verbs). frequent omission of functional morphemes (e.g. articles, prepositions) and inflections (e.g. plural - s, past tense -ed) speech is ‘agrammatic’. I eggs and eat and drink coffee breakfast
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related to difficulties in auditory comprehension, sometimes called ‘sensory aphasia’. 开始学习
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-very fluent speech which is, however, often difficult to make sense of. very general terms are used, even in response to questions for specific information. difficulties finding the correct word (anomia); to deal with problem → describing the objects or their puropse
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Caused by the damage to the arcuate fasciculus 开始学习
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sometimes mispronounce words, but usually do not have articulation problems. they are fluent, but rhythm may be disrupted due to pauses comprehension of spoken words is good. repeating a word or phrase (spoken by someone else) is problematic.
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开始学习
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A period in childhood during which language acquisition occurs most efficiently; after this period, learning language becomes more difficult. first few years of life is the crucial time in which an individual can acquire a first language
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difference between acquiring a language and learning a language 开始学习
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acquiring a language natural process when a child learns the language throught the contact with enviroment without formal instructions learning- aquiring the language through formal way, from books, lessons, grammal rules
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开始学习
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The Language Acquisition Device – a hypothetical mechanism in a child's brain that facilitates language acquisition allows children laquiring the language quickly and effortcently
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What does it mean that interaction is required in first language acquisition 开始学习
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Children need to interact with others to effectively acquire language listening is not enough to master the languag. children must particioate in interactions with other people
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What does it mean that cultural transmission is required in first language acquisition 开始学习
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Language is passed down through generations in a social and cultural context how the concepts from one culture are passed down from generation to generation
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开始学习
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Child-Directed Speech – the way adults speak to children, characterized by simple vocabulary, clear articulation, and repetition
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